1. Basic Contexts and Backgrounds
| Thinker | Key Work(s) | Historical Context |
|---|---|---|
| Thomas Hobbes | Leviathan (1651) | English Civil War; fear of anarchy; secular, scientific approach to politics |
| John Locke | Two Treatises of Government (1689) | Glorious Revolution; early liberalism; pro-parliament |
| Jean-Jacques Rousseau | The Social Contract (1762) | Enlightenment, critique of inequality; pre-French Revolution |
| John Milton | Areopagitica (1644), Tenure of Kings and Magistrates (1649) | English Civil War, Puritan ideology; radical Protestant republicanism |
| Niccolò Machiavelli | The Prince (1532), Discourses (1531) | Italian city-state chaos; Renaissance humanism; realism in politics |
2. View of Human Nature
| Thinker | Human Nature |
|---|---|
| Hobbes | Selfish, fearful, competitive—homo homini lupus (man is a wolf to man) |
| Locke | Rational, cooperative, guided by natural law |
| Rousseau | Naturally good, corrupted by social institutions |
| Milton | Rational and moral, but fallen; guided by conscience and God |
| Machiavelli | Self-interested, fickle, deceptive; prone to evil when unrestrained |
3. The Social Contract / Origin of Government
| Thinker | Source and Purpose of Authority |
|---|---|
| Hobbes | Individuals surrender all rights to a sovereign for security; absolute authority needed to prevent chaos |
| Locke | People form governments to protect natural rights; limited government with right to rebel |
| Rousseau | Government must embody the general will; authority arises from collective agreement |
| Milton | Government is a covenant between God and people; rulers must serve God and liberty |
| Machiavelli | Power arises through force, cunning, or chance; political authority must be effective, not necessarily moral |
4. Liberty and Individual Rights
| Thinker | View of Liberty |
|---|---|
| Hobbes | Liberty is the absence of external impediments, but must be sacrificed for peace |
| Locke | Liberty is living under known laws with consent |
| Rousseau | Liberty is obedience to the general will (collective freedom) |
| Milton | Liberty is moral and spiritual freedom—freedom of conscience and expression |
| Machiavelli | Liberty is the independence of the state; individual liberty is secondary to political strength |
5. Religion and Politics
| Thinker | Religion's Role |
|---|---|
| Hobbes | Religion is subordinate to the sovereign; prevents religious conflict |
| Locke | Supports religious tolerance; separation of church and state |
| Rousseau | Religion should support civic values (civil religion) |
| Milton | Deeply Christian; religious liberty is central |
| Machiavelli | Religion is useful for maintaining order and virtue, not truth-based |
6. Rebellion and Political Legitimacy
| Thinker | View on Rebellion |
|---|---|
| Hobbes | Rebellion is never justified; it returns society to the state of nature (chaos) |
| Locke | Justified when government breaks the social contract or violates rights |
| Rousseau | Legitimate only when general will is suppressed or corrupted |
| Milton | Justified against tyrants who defy God and the people |
| Machiavelli | Rebellion is a political tool; effectiveness justifies action, not moral principles |
Summary Table
| Feature | Hobbes | Locke | Rousseau | Milton | Machiavelli |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Human Nature | Selfish, fearful | Rational, cooperative | Good, corrupted | Moral, fallen | Selfish, power-seeking |
| Purpose of Gov’t | Security, peace | Protect rights | Express general will | Serve liberty & God | Maintain order & power |
| Ideal Government | Absolute sovereign | Limited, constitutional | Direct democracy | Republic under God | Strong prince or republic |
| View of Liberty | Submission to authority | Legal, individual liberty | Collective self-rule | Conscience, expression | State power and order |
| Rebellion? | Never justified | Justified if rights violated | If will of people denied | Justified against tyranny | Tactically useful |
| Religion | Subordinate to state | Tolerated, separate | Civil religion for unity | Core to liberty | Tool for statecraft |
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